February 2007


UNIVERSAL PROTECTION AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
* Pan Mohamad Faiz

A. Universal Protection of Human Right
Broadly speaking human right may be regarded as those fundamental and inalienable rights which are essential for life as human being. Human rights are the rights which are possessed by very human being, irrespective of his or her nationality, race, religion, sex, etc., simply because he or she is a human being. Human rights are thus rights which are inherent in our nature and without which we cannot live as human being.

J.E.S. Fawcett explains that Human Right are sometimes called fundamental rights or basic rights or natural rights. As fundamental or basic rights they are the rights which cannot, rather must not, be taken away by any legislature or any Act of the government and which are often set out in constitution. As natural rights they are seen as belonging to men and women by their very nature.

1. UN Charter and Human Right

Human rights would occupy a significant chapter in any story of the U.N. Their place in the origin conception of the U.N. is underlined in the Charter and there are as many as seven references in the Preamble.

The provision of the U.N. Charter concerning human rights provides a foundation for and an impetus to further improvement in the protection of human rights. They indicate the wide possibilities of the international recognition of human rights. Article 1 puts the promotion of respect for human rights on the same level as the maintenance of international peace and security as a purpose of the U.N.

One of the basic objective of the trusteeship in accordance with the purpose of the U.N. Charter shall be to encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion to encourage recognition of the interdependence of the peoples of the world.

2. Human Rights and Domestic Jurisdiction

It may be noted that the domestic and international aspects are closely interwoven. Almost every problem that concerns international relation must come with the domestic boundaries of one nation and may across over into another and create an international problem. Therefore a matter is not essential one of the domestic jurisdiction if it has become the subject of international obligation undertaken by the state.

It may also be noted that Article 2(7) which contains the prohibition in respect of domestic jurisdiction provider an exception in respect of the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII of the Charter. Thus if violations of human being give rise to a dispute or situation which poses a threat to international peace and security, the Security Council may take enforcement measures under Chapter VII. But as pointed out by an eminent author, the organization will act, as many resolutions particularly in matters relating to Southern Africa show, even if there is no threat to the peace.

3. U.N. Commission on Human Rights

The United Nation Commission on Human Rights (UNHCR) was a functional commission within the overall framework of the United Nations. It was a subsidiary body of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), and was also assisted in its work by the office of the UN High Commisioner for Human Rights (UNHCR). It was the UN’s principal mechanism and international forum concerned with the promotion and protection of human rights. On 15 March 2006 the UN General Assembly voted overwhelming to replace UNHCR with the UN Human Rights Council.

The Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights was the main subsidiary body of the Commission on Human Rights. It was composed of twenty six-experts whose responsibility was to undertake studies, particularly in the light of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and make recommendation of discrimination of any kind relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms and the protection of racial, national, religious and linguistic minorities. Membership was selected with regard to equitable geographic distribution.

The commission was repeatedly criticized for the composition of its membership. In particular, several of its member countries themselves had dubious human rights records, including states that representatives have been elected to chair the Commission. Another criticism was that the Commission did not engage in constructive discussion of human right issues, but was a form for politically selective finger – pointing and criticism. The desire of states with problematic human rights records to be elected to the Commission was viewed largely as a way to defend themselves from such attacks.

4. United Nation Human Rights Council

The United Nation Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is an international body within the UN system. Its stated purpose is to address human rights violation. The Council is the successor to the UNCHR, which was often criticised for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens.

On Wednesday, 15 March 2006, the United Nations General Assembly voted overwhelmingly in favour of creating the new human rights body, with the resolution receiving approval from 170 members of the 191-nation Assembly. Only the United States, the Marshall Islands, Palau, and Israel voted against the Council’s creation, claiming that it would have too little power and that there were insufficient safeguards to prevent human rights-abusing nations from taking control.

The 47-seat Human Rights Council replaces the former 53-member Commission on H.R. The Commission was an independent body, but the Council has been elevated to the states of a subsidiary body of the Assembly. The 47-seats in the Council are distributed among the UN’s regional groups as follows: 13 for Africa, 13 for Asia, 6 for Eastern Europe, 8 for Latin America and the Caribbean, and 7 for the Western European and others group.

Various activities can be undertaking by special procedures including responding to individual complaints, conducting studies, providing advice on technical cooperation, and engaging in promotional activities. The special mechanism is categorized according to thematic mandates and country mandates. Currently, they are 20 thematics and 13 country mandates under special procedures.

5. Universal Declaration of Human Right (UDHR)

The Universal Declaration of Human Right was prepared by the Commission on Human Right in 1947 and 1948 and was adopted by the General Assembly on December 10, 1948. It was a most elegant expression of hope by a world emerging from the most devastating war in the history of human race.

The General Assembly proclaims the UDHR as a common standard of achievement for all people, and of all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect of these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the people of Member states themselves and among the people of territories under their jurisdiction.

The right proclaimed in the UDHR may be classified into following fair categories:
1. General (Article 1 and 2);
2. Civil and Political (Articles 3 to 21);
3. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Articles 22 to 27), and
4. Concluding (Articles 28 to 30).

Since its adoption the UDHR has exercised a powerful influence, both internationally and nationality, it has been rightly pointed out, that “whatever its legal quality, the Declaration has set a standard by which national behaviour can be measured and to which nations can aspire. The Declaration has helped to give contour and content to the generalities of the Charter reflecting the spirit and the needs of the day.

The UDHR was a public, and indeed a global proclamation of a common standard of achievement for all people and all nations. It’s the mine from which other conventions as well as national constitutions protecting these rights have been and are being quarried.

The rights and freedoms enshrined in the UDHR have been incorporated in various declaration adopted by the UN, International Convention, regional convention (European Convention for the Protection of Human Right and Fundamental Rights), and have cited by judges of ICJ.

6. The International Bill of Human Rights

a. ICCPR

The international Bill of Human Rights comprises of the following:
1. The Universal Declaration of Human Right;
2. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 1966;
3. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ECOSOC), 1966;
4. The Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, 1966.

The ICCPR, 1966 comprises of 53 Articles divided into VI Parts. For the convenience of study, these articles may be classified into following categories:
a. Preamble;
b. General (Article 1 to 3 and 5);
c. Rights in Emergency (Article 4);
d. Substantive Rights (Article 4);
e. Implementation of Enforcement Machinery (Article 28 to 45);
f. Interpretation of Saving Provision (Article 46 to 46);
g. Final or concluding provisions, regarding ratification, of accession of the covenant, amendments, etc.

The implementation or enforcement machinery is provided under Part IV of the Covenant. The Covenant provides for the establishment of an eighteen-member Human Rights Committee. The Committee performs the functions of implementation of the Human Right in following ways: 1. The Reporting Procedure;
2. The Inter-State Communication System;
3. Conciliation Commission, and
4. Individual’s Communication System.

b. ECOSOC

Beside preamble the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights comprises of 31 Article divided into five parts:
1. Preamble;
2. General (Article 1 to 5);
3. Substantive Rights (Article 6 to 15);
4. Measures for implementation (Article 16 to 25);
5. Final or Concluding Provisions (Article 26 to 31).

State parties to the Covenant have an obligation to submit to the Secretary General of the U.N. reports on the measures which they have adopted and the progress made. The Secretary General shall then transit copies of report to the Economic and Social Council. The ECOSOC may transmit the reports to the Commission for study and general recommendation.

B. Implementation of Human Rights

It is proposed to discuss below the measures for implementation of human rights under the following:
1. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966;
2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966;
3. Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, 1966.
4. Second Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, aiming at the abolition of Death Penalty, 1989.

1. Under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

The machinery for the implementation of the rights enumerated in the covenant on economic, social and cultural rights is quite different from the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It is so primarily because implementation of economic and social rights is local and national issue. The Covenant provided reporting system for the implementation of the provisions.

Article 16 of the Covenant provides that States Parties are to undertake to submit reports to the Secretary General of the U.N. who shall transmit copies to the ECOSOC for consideration and to the concerned specialized agencies. The States in the reports are requires to mention the measures which they have adopted and the progress made in achieving the observance of the rights recognised therein.

They also required indicating factors and responsibility affecting the degree of fulfillment of obligations under the present Covenant. The report shall be furnished in stages. The State parties to the Covenant and the specialized agencies concerned may submit comments to the economic and social council on any general recommendation in any report of the commission on human rights or any documentation referred to therein. The Council may submit from time to time to the general assembly the reports with the recommendation of a general nature and the summary of the information received from the state parties to the covenant and the specialized agencies

2. Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

The implementation procedure under the ICCPR is carried on by the human rights committee consisting of 18 persons who are required to be persons of high moral character and recognized competence in the filed of human rights. The member serves in their personal capacity. The committee carries out the implementation of human rights stipulated in the covenant in seveal different ways in following:
a. The system of Reporting;
b. Intern-State of Reporting;
c. Conciliation Procedure.

a. The system of Reporting

In accordance with Article 40(1) state parties undertake to submit report on the measures they have adopted which give effect to the rights recognized herein and the progress made in the enjoyment of those rights every 5 years. The report indicates the factors and difficulties affecting the implementation of provisions. The committee as it may consider appropriate to the state as it may consider appropriate to the state parties. The reporting system enables the committee to develop a dialogue with each state party in regard to the implementation of the Covenant. For this purpose, the representative of the State whose report is being considered is permitted to be present at the meeting of the committee.

b. Inter-State Communication System

The violation of human right provision by one state is the concern of the whole world. Under this procedure if the provisions of the covenant are not given affect by a state, other states parties may make complaints regarding the violations before the human rights committee.

This procedure has two stages. First is the bilateral negotiations between the states i.e., a state party to covenant may make communication in writing bringing the attention of defaulting member state to a matter. Within 3 months of receiving such communication the receiving state communicates an explanation which includes reference to the domestic procedures and remedies taken, pending or available or any other statement clarifying the matter.

Secondly, if the matter is not adjusted to the satisfaction of both the state parties concerned within the 6 months after the receipt of initial communication by the receiving state, either state has right to refer the matter to the human rights committee. If any communication is received by the committee, it examines only after it has ascertained that all available domestic remedies have been invoked and exhausted in the matter, in conformity with the generally recognized principles of international law.

In every such matter committee is required to make a report within 12 months time from the receipt of the notice give by the state party. If a solution is reached then report is confined to brief statement of facts and of solution reached. If committee fails to reach a solution, then its report is confined to a brief statement of fact.

c. Conciliation Procedure

If an Inter-State Communication provided under Article 41, not resolved to the satisfaction of the State Parties concerned, the Committee may, with the prior consent of the State Parties concerned, appoint in ad hoc conciliation commission with a view to make an amicable solution of the matter on the basis with respect for the present covenant.

The commission shall be consisted of five persons acceptable to the state parties concerned. If the State Parties concerned fail to reach agreement within 3 months on the composition of the commission then such members shall be elected by secret ballot by a two-third majority vote of the committee amongst its members. The members of the Commission shall serve in their personal capacity.

If an amicable solution is reached it shall confine its report to a brief statement of facts and the solution reached. If a solution is not reached, the report of the Commission shall embody its finding on all question of fact relevant to the issues between the states are required to notify the Chairman within 3 months of the receipt of the report whether or not they accept the contents of the report of the Commission.

3. Under Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, 1966

In addition to the aforementioned three methods of implementation of the rights recognised under the ICCPR, 1966, a fourth method, i.e., individual’s communication system is provided under the optional protocol to the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (optional protocol).

In order to avail the above method of implementation, i.e., individual’s communication system following conditions must be satisfied:
1. The competence of the committee to receive and consider communication is limited to the individuals whose states is parties to Optional Protocol as well as Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
2. The communication of the individual must concern the rights enumerated in the Civil Covenant.
3. Before submitting a written communication to the committee, the individuals must have exhausted all available domestic remedies.
4. A communication submitted must not be anonymous nor must it be an abuse of the right of submission with the provisions of the Civil Covenant.
5. The committee shall not be considers any communication from individual unless it has ascertained that the same matter is not being examined under another procedure of international settlement.

4. Under the Second Protocol to the ICCPR, aiming at the Abolition of Death Penalty

The second optional protocol is necessarily and invariably related to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the (first) Optional Protocol. The machinery for implementation therefore is also the same, namely the Human Right Committee.

The Second Protocol provides for following three ways of implementation:
a. The Reporting system;
b. Inter-State communication system;
c. Individual’s communication system.

***

The writer is a Postgraduate Student on Master of Comparative Law Programme at Faculty of Law, University of Delhi.

Main References:
1. UN Declaration of Human Rights.
2. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights with Its Protocols.
3. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
4. S.K. Kapoor, International Law and Human Rights, Central Law Agency, 2006.
5. H.O. Agarwal, International Law and Human Rights, Central Law Publications, 2006
6. J.L. Koul and S.L. Bhalla, Law of International Organisation and Human Rights, Privated Circulation, 2004,
7. etc.

SEBUAH PERTANGGUNGJAWABAN MORAL DAN AKADEMIK
MELALUI BLOG HUKUM (LAW BLOG)


Lahir di Jakarta, Besar di New Delhi

Berbagai musim telah terlewati, warna kehidupan silih berganti. Kesemuanya itu telah menemani pola dan jalan pemikiran salah satu dari sekian juta anak bangsa yang secara kontinuitas mencoba menumpahkan berbagai ide dan gagasannya dalam suatu media elektronik yang bernama Blog di mana dengan mudahnya dapat dinikmati secara bersama oleh siapapun. Pemaparan berikut akan menguraikan sedikit perjalanan dan hiruk-pikuk yang saya alami selama mengembangkan Blog Hukum (Law Blog/Blawg) ini demi menyambut peringatan satu tahun keberadaan Blawg ini.

Berawal dari rasa ingin tahu, ketertarikan terhadap salah satu Blawg yang dikelola oleh teman saya akhirnya membawa diri ini masuk dan mulai menyelami dunia Blog. Di launching pertama kali pada tanggal 28 Februari 2006 yang lalu, Blawg ini telah melewati berbagai masa kritis, kejayaan, hingga “penelantaran” yang cukup serius. Tujuan pembuatan Blawg ini pada awalnya yaitu sekedar untuk menyimpan berbagai artikel dan beberapa hasil penelitian yang telah saya buat dalam kurun waktu 3 tahun silam. Walhasil, dengan keterbatasan pengetahuan dalam mengelola blog, jadilah Blawg pertama dengan judul awal “Faiz Law Journal” yang sangat teramat sederhana dengan fokus kajian pada bidang hukum dan konstitusi. Beberapa ringkasan tulisan yang sangat singkat dengan variasi huruf mulai mewarnai perjalanan blawg tersebut. Harap dimaklumi pada saat itu saya adalah satu dari sekian ribu Blogger Indonesia yang awam dalam teknik mendesign Blog, khususnya dalam membuat sistem “Read More”, sehingga sistem tradisional yang cukup “njlimet” mau tidak mau terpaksa saya digunakan.

Tanpa disadari, munculnya Blawg pribadi ini ternyata membawa pengaruh tidak langsung dengan memotivasi saya agar selalu menghasilkan karya tulis terbaru untuk mencegah terjadinya tampilan blog yang monoton dan tidak kunjung berubah. Tujuh artikel pilihan dan empat hasil penelitian, termasuk hasil warisan selama saya berkuliah, berhasil dikemas dalam waktu empat bulan pertama. Sedangkan pada bulan ke tiga dan kelima sama sekali tidak ada satupun artikel yang saya “publish”.

Menginjak bulan kelima, terjadilah perkembangan yang sangat drastis dari semua sudut Blawg ini. Dimulai dari layout penampilan, substansi, dan berbagai fasilitas pendukung lainnya telah merubah total wajah Blawg ini dari tampilan sebelumnya. Lingkungan sekitarlah yang telah memberikan suplemen baru bagi perkembangan Blawg ini. Pasalnya pada awal bulan Juli tahun lalu saya berkesempatan untuk menerima beasiswa guna melanjutkan studi program Pascasarjana di salah satu negeri besar Asia yaitu Republik India.

Sebelum saya berangkat ke India, memang seringkali saya menemukan Blog yang dibuat oleh puluhan Mahasiswa Indonesia yang sedang menempuh pendidikan di India, salah satunya adalah Blog yang dikelola oleh A. Fatih Syuhud, satu dari sepuluh blogger terbaik Indonesia yang populer dengan sebutan Blogger Indonesia. Beliau jugalah yang menjadi salah satu inspirator yang telah banyak mengajarkan saya tentang bagaimana teknik dan metode membuat berbagai artikel ilmiah populer, khususnya yang ditujukan untuk dimuat pada berbagai media massa, semenjak saya masih duduk di bangku kuliah.

Tak dinaya, pada hari ke-3 kedatangan saya di India, dengan ditemani oleh perwakilan Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia (PPI) di India, saya bertemu dengannya pada satu kesempatan jamuan makan malam penyambuatan mahasiswa baru di New Delhi. Percakapan seputar Blog pun menjadi topik yang hangat, mengingat hampir seluruh Mahasiswa Indonesia di India, selain gemar menulis juga menguasai teknik membuat blog. Sejak detik itulah ilmu blogging yang mereka miliki ditransfer sedikit demi sedikit pada saya hingga akhirnya saat ini saya mampu melebarkan sayap dengan mengelola Bilingual Blawg (Indonesia dan Inggris), Biografi Pribadi, dan terakhir Blog tentang Ilmu Politik.

Unsur Kemanfaatan dan Moral Akademik

Seiring dengan perjalanan waktu, niat awal pembuatan Blawg yang dahulu sekedar menjadi wadah penyimpanan arsip pribadi secara online, lambat laun telah berubah menjadi sarana uji coba dan pengasahan pengetahuan yang dituangkan dalam bentuk tulisan. Akhirnya nawaitu awal saya tersebut berevolusi untuk menjadikan Blawg ini sebagai wadah online untuk memberikan manfaat ilmu hukum dan sosial bagi orang banyak. Silih berganti tulisan demi tulisan, baik yang berbahasa Indonesia maupun Inggris, menghias kolom-kolom Blawg yang telah tertata lebih baik dari sebelumnya. Beberapa artikel diantaranya sengaja saya muat kembali dari tulisan saya yang pernah dimuat di berbagai media massa dalam kurun waktu 6 (enam) bulan terakhir ini.

Walaupun Blawg ini terbilang cukup aneh karena dianggap melawan arus tren Blog Indonesia, yaitu hanya menghimpun berbagai analisa, artikel dan hasil penelitian hukum dengan bobot akademis yang cukup serius, tapi setidaknya rasa pesimisme yang dilontarkan beberapa rekan Blogger Populis lainnya kepada saya kini telah terbayar. Dengan rasa syukur, ternyata banyak juga masyarakat umum, baik ahli hukum maupun awam hukum, memberikan respon dan tanggapan yang cukup baik. Setidaknya hingga kini telah terdapat beberapa Institusi, Media Cetak dan Elektronik, serta Perorangan yang meminta soft copy atas artikel dan hasil penelitian yang telah saya buat. Beberapa diantaranya yaitu:

  1. Lembaga Kajian Hukum dan Teknologi, Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia;
  2. Pusat Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Kebijakan pada Organisasi Internasional, BPPK, Departemen Luar Negeri;
  3. Lembaga Manajemen HKI, Universitas Atmajaya Yogyakarta;
  4. Koalisi Anti Utang;
  5. Jurnal Hukum dan Pembangunan;
  6. Harian Seputar Indonesia;
  7. Sindikasi.com;
  8. Josephine Pancia, Social Worker, Women’s Health Unit, New South Wales, Australia, dll

Kemudian, beberapa peneliti dan mahasiswa juga sedikit memperoleh efek “positif” dari adanya Blawg ini. Begitu pula dengan beberapa mahasiswa yang meminta saya untuk menjadi pembimbing online dari skripsi yang akan dibuatnya. Beberapa teman-teman baru (peneliti dan mahasiswa) saya tersebut diantaranya yaitu:

  1. R. Wahyuningrat, Recht Faculteit, Utrecht Universiteit (Belanda);
  2. Jemiah, Psyciatry Nursing at Christian Medical College, Vellore (India);
  3. Mayank Misra, Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur (India);
  4. Arfarina, Fakultas Hukum Universitas Indonesia, Depok;
  5. Rumedya, Hubungan Internasional, Universitas Pasundan, Bandung;
  6. Maya D, Fakultas Hukum Universitas Pharayangan, Bandung;
  7. Tantri, Fakultas Hukum Universitas Brawijaya, Malang;
  8. Wahyu, Fakultas Hukum Universitas Brawijaya, Malang; dll

Tidak ada yang lebih indah selain dapat berbagi pengetahuan kita kepada orang lain, walaupun saya yakin kepada mereka yang di luar sana tentunya jauh lebih mengerti akan ilmu yang saya geluti. Tapi setidaknya, inilah salah satu cara yang kini sedang dan akan saya terus perjuangkan sebagai bentuk pertanggungjawaban moral akademik saya terhadap apa yang sedang dan telah saya pelajari selama menempuh pendidikan di tingkat Universitas.

Harapan di Tahun 2007

Tak ada gading yang tak retak. Tentunya apa yang saya lakukan bagi masyarakat melalui “satu jendela komputer” selama ini masihlah banyak kekurangan. Tidak jarang juga ada email dan berbagai pertanyaan yang tidak sempat saya balas dikarenakan waktu yang tidak tersedia ditengah-tengah ujian dan kegiatan lainnya, cukup menyita waktu dan pikiran. Jikalau banyak rekan-rekan lainnya yang juga melakukan hal serupa dengan apa yang saya lakukan, tentunya kewajiban moral-sosial untuk berbagi pengetahuan seperti ini, tentunya akan terasa menjadi lebih mudah dan ringan. Pasalnya, berbeda dengan fenomena negara-negara lain, trend blogging yang menampilkan materi bermuatan ilmiah, khususnya di bidang hukum, tidak cukup banyak di temukan pada komunitas Blogger Indonesia.

Oleh sebab itu, saya pun ingin mengucapkan rasa terima kasih yang sebesar-besarnya kepada rekan-rekan Blawgosphere saya yang tak jemu-jemunya memberikan pemahaman akan ilmu hukum kepada masyarakat. Mereka, diantaranya, yaitu Mohammad Mova Al-Afghani, Ari Juliano Gema, Anggara, Jodi Santoso, Wahyu Kuncoro, Amrie Hakim, dan Abdul Manan.

Semoga di tahun 2007 ini saya mampu menjaga komitmen dan integritas dalam menulis dengan disertai harapan bahwa akan lebih banyak lagi para “blawgger” baru yang bersedia meluangkan waktu dan berbagi ilmu hukumnya secara cuma-cuma kepada orang lain. Sebab pada kenyataannya, masih banyak warga masyarakat yang mengeluhkan bahwa pengetahuan hukum hingga saat ini terkesan ekslusif dan sangat mahal untuk dimiliki dan diketahui oleh masyarakat umum. Padahal pengetahuan dan kesadaran akan hukum di tengah-tengah masyarakat akan menjadi cikal bakal tumbuhnya kehidupan demokrasi dan bernegara yang sehat yang pada akhirnya membawa bangsa Indonesia keluar dari berbagai problematika yang kian menjerat masyarakat kecil.

New Delhi, 21 Februari 2007 – 02.00AM

International Student House
Room No. 44

AMENDMENT AND REFORM OF THE U.N. CHARTER


Procedure for Amendment

Article 108 provides that amendments to the present Charter shall come into force for all Members of the United Nations when they have been adopted by a vote of two-thirds of the members of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional process by two-thirds of the Members of the U.N., including all the permanent members of the Security Council.

Thus no amendment can be made unless agreed by all the permanent members of the Council. In other words, a single permanent member of the Security Council can undo the efforts of all other Members to make an amendment of the Charter.
Article 109 envisages a general conference of the Members of the U.N. for the purpose of reviewing the Charter and most of the Controversy regarding the amendment centres round this provision. The main problem that confronts the organization in regard to changes in the charter is inherent in Article 109 itself. For the purposes solely of amendment of the Charter this whole article is redundant.

Further, the trust at the UN has been to strike to implement thus article. This movement is doomed to failure – short of a new global disaster so awesome that it forces the emergence of a general will among nations to rethink and redesign the type of world system within they should try to live at peace.

Article 109 provides that a General Conference of the Members of the UN for the purposes of reviewing the present charter may be held at a date and place to be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the Members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any nine Members of the S.C. Each members of the U.N. shall have one vote in conference.

Any alteration of the present Charter recommended by a two-third vote of the conference shall take effect when ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two-third of the Members of the U.N. including all the permanent members of the S.C.

If such a conference has not been held before the tenth annual session of the General Assembly following the coming into force of the present Charter, the proposal to call such a conference shall be placed in the Agenda of that session of the General Assembly and the Conference shall be held if so desired by a majority vote of the members of the General Assembly and by vote of any seven Members of the Security Council.

Reform of the Charter

In view of failures of the U.N., particularly in the field of peace and Security, some critics have suggested the need of reform of the U.N. Charter. The Charter is like a constitution and should be amended from time to time to adopt it to the changing times and circumstances.

Such amendment would upgrade economic and financial matters, as well as social questions including the growing field of human rights. There is no guarantee that this would lead to great results but it should, in a measure, increase the chances of beneficial results.

Yet another proposal which merits consideration is to delete all reference to “enemy states” in the Charter. It has also been proposed “to strengthen the capacity of the U.N. to be an influence in making and keeping peace” and for this “the representative character of the S.C.” should be improved.

Beside the above suggestions, many other suggestions for amending the Charter have been made by author and jurist. These include to make a clearly definition of the term “domestic jurisdiction”, some restrictions on the exercise of veto by permanent members of the S.C., strengthening the legislative activities of the General Assembly, amendment of Article 99 or addition of Article 99 to empower the Secretary general bring to the attention of the Security Council matters relating to human rights, expanding and strengthening of the role of the I.C.J., etc.

AN OVERVIEW OF USE OF FORCE, SELF-DEFENCE AND
HUMAN INTERVENTION

A. Use of Force

Article 2(3) of the U.N Charter requires all member states “to settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice are not endangered.” While Article 2(4) specifically refers to the threat or use of force “against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state …”

The purposes of the U.N. are spelt out in Article 1 of the Charter. The purposes include respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination and respect for human rights. Article 2(4) has been supplemented by the 1970 General Assembly Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the U.N. To put simply, the resolution says, any threat or use of force by state in accordance with the exceptions provided for under the U.N. Charter, is contrary to, and prohibited by contemporary international law.

The use of force only remains legitimate under international law in particularly well-defined circumstances:
1. In self-defence either individual or collective (in accordance with Article 51 of the U.N. Charter);
2. Collective measures taken under the auspices of the U.N; or
3. If authorized by a competent organ of the U.N.

B. Self-Defence

Under customary law, the use of force had to be justified if states are at peace. The use of force by one state against another with which it was not at war was prima facie unlawful. The circumstances which allowed the exercise of the self-defence were articulated in the now famous communication of the U.S. Secretary of State Webster to the British Government following the Caroline incident.

To summarise, the exercise of force in self-defence was justified under customary international law provided that the need for it was:
1. Instant;
2. Overwhelming;
3. Immediate; and
4. There was no viable alternative action which could be taken.

The extent of force used in self-defence had to be commensurate with the violation it was being utilized to repel. The above criteria still apply today as the Nicaragua Case affirms. Article 51 of the UN Charter acknowledges the right of self-defence as an inherent right of every state. Self-defence is permissible if an armed attack has taken place and Article 51 confines itself to self-defence only in this situation.

It may be considered to be agreed that an armed attack must be understood as including not merely action by regular armed forces across an international border, but also the sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries which carry out armed force against another state of such gravity as to amount to (inter alia) an actual armed attack conducted by regular forces, or its substantial involvement therein.

The ICJ sees, ICJ Report on Nicaragua case, 1986, no reason to deny, that in customary law, the prohibition of armed attacks may apply to the sending by a state of armed bands to the territory of another state, if such an operation, because of its scale and effects, would have been classified as an armed attack rather than as a mere frontier incident had it been carried at by regular armed forces.

But the court does not believe that the concept of armed attack includes not only acts by armed band where such acts occur on a significant scale but also assistance to rebels in the form of the provision of weapons or logistical or other support. Such assistance may be regarded as a threat or use of force, or amount to intervention in the internal or external affairs of other states.

C. Anticipatory Self-Defence or Pre-Emptive Attack

The right of self-defence which Article 51 acknowledges as “inherent” exists under customary international law that is, independently of Article 51. The justification for anticipatory self-defence can be reconciled with the obligation on U.N. Member States to refrain from either “the threat or use of force”. For example in Israel’s strike on the United Arab Republic in June 1967 or U.S. strike on Iraq in 2003.

States which are threatened with the use of force may take appropriate anticipatory measures to repel such a threat, but such measures can only be justified if:
1. A state is the target of hostile activities of another state;
2. The threatened state has exhausted all alternative means of protection;
3. The danger is imminent;
4. The defensive measures are appropriate to the pending danger.

However, whatever rights states enjoy with respect to the use of force; they are at all time required by the UN Charter and customary international law to settle their dispute by peaceful means.

D. Collective Self-Defence

The right of collective self-defence is recognized by Article 51 of the U.N. Charter. Collective self-defence refers, strictly speaking, to collective defence rather than self-defence. Article 51 is the legal basis of collective agreements such as NATO Alliance in which an attack on one member is treated as an attack on all.

Under Article 51 of the North Atlantic Treaty, the contracting Parties: “Agree than an armed attack against one of more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all; and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognize by article 51 of the Charter of the UN, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked, by taking forthwith, individually, and in concert with the other Parties, use of armed force, to restore and maintain the Security of the North Atlantic Area.

All measures adopted by Members States in self-defence must be reported to the Security Council and the use of force individual or collective self-defence may only be employed until the Security Council has taken appropriate measures to maintain international peace and security. The right of collective self-defence was recognized by the International Court of Justice in the Nicaragua case as existing under customary international law but its legitimate exercise depended on:
1. The declaration by the alleged victim that it had been attacked;
2. The request by that state for assistance.

In the same case the court held that intervention by a third world could only be regarded as lawful “when the wrongful act provoking the response was an armed attack. It can thus be argued that the armed response (Operation Desert Storm) to liberate Kuwait was the exercise by the latter of its legal right to collective self-defence.

E. Humanitarian Intervention

The demise of the Cold War witnessed on increase in the number of civil wars. Media images of human suffering in Somalia, Rwarda, Haiti and the former Yugoslavia have ensured that humanitarian crises have been pushed to the forefront of the international agenda.

The doctrine of humanitarian intervention has as a consequence undergone substantial revision in recent years, with the UN accorded a prominent role. Scholarly debate supports the view that humanitarian intervention by the UN is the preferable course of action.

The international community has demonstrated its willingness to use humanitarian concerns as a basis for intervention into what are essentially civil war conflicts. The alleviation of human suffering would appear to be taking precedence over the principle of state sovereignty.

Nevertheless, the international response to humanitarian crises in the 1990s has been inconsistent and considerable criticism has been directed at operation by the UN intervention in any future crisis will require Security Council authorization.

SIFAT DASAR DAN PENGERTIAN MENGENAI PERBANDINGAN HUKUM
A. Pendahuluan

Perbandingan adalah salah satu sumber pengetahuan yang sangat penting. Perbandingan dapat dikatakan sebagai suatu teknik, disiplin, pelaksanaan dan metode di mana nilai-nilai kehidupan manusia, hubungan dan aktivitasnya dikenal dan dievaluasi.

Pentingnya perbandingan telah mendapatkan penghargaan di setiap bagian oleh siapapun dalam bidang studi dan penelitian. Nilai penting tersebut direfleksikan pada pekerjaan dan tulisan-tulisan yang dihasilkan oleh para ahli ilmu pengetahuan, ahli sejarah, ahli ekonomi, para politisi, ahli hukum dan mereka yang terkait dengan kegiatan penyelidikan dan penelitian. Apapun gagasan, ide, prinsip dan teorinya, kesemuanya dapat diformulasikan dan dapat dikatakan sebagai hasil dari metode studi perbandingan. Hal inilah yang dinamakan hukum sejatinya.

Berbagai kontribusi dari para pemikir hukum dan penulis biasanya merupakan hasil dari pendekatan perbandingan mereka. Yurisprudensi sebagai suatu ilmu hukum, esensi keistimewaannya terletak pada para metode studi yang khusus, bukan pada hukum dari satu negara saja, tetapi gagasan-gagasan besar dari hukum itu sendiri, [1] yaitu hukum yang berasal dari hampir keseluruhan negara-negara di dunia. Para ahli hukum dan filasafat hukum telah mengemukakan butir-butir pemikirannya sendiri tentang studi hukum, filosofinya, fungsi dan pendirian setelah melakukan studi ekstensif dari sistem hukum mereka masing-masing dan sistem dari berbagai negara lainnya di dunia, dengan membandingkan antara satu dengan lainnya.

Pendekatan dalam bidang ilmu hukum ini telah mengembangkan sebuah cabang studi hukum baru yang dinamakan dengan “Perbandingan Hukum” dengan menggunakan metode berdasarkan penelitian terhadap hukum dari berbagai negara dengan teknik perbandingan. Bermacam hal yang berhubungan dengan pembuatan, pengaplikasian dan administrasi hukum juga ditemukan dalam metode ini sebagai suatu garis pedoman, alat dalam kecakapan berkerja dan sebuah rancangan pada satu situasi di mana sistem tersebut dapat dibangun pada bidang aktivitas mereka masing-masing dengan memperbandingkan hukum di negara mereka dengan sistem hukum lainnya dengan cara merubah, memodifikasi dan menambahkan apapun yang diperlukan dalam lingkup kepentingan selanjutnya dalam lingkup hukum international, studi ilmu hukum, perdagangan dan perniagaan, diplomatik dan hubungan kebudayaan yang dapat dijangkau dan hal terpenting bukanlah pada masalah bidang studi, tetapi sebuah realitas dalam pelayanan yang diberikan kepada umat manusia, masyarakat dan bangsa.

B. Sifat Dasar

Perbandingan hukum, dalam pengertian yang paling sederhana, merupakan suatu metode studi dan penelitian di mana hukum-hukum dan lembaga-lembaga hukum dari dua negara atau lebih diperbandingkan. Metode ini menaruh perhatian pada analisa kandungan dari sistem hukum yang berbeda dalam rangka menemukan solusi guna menjawab berbagai masalah hukum. Hal ini juga merupakan teknik dan kemahiran khusus di mana beberapa hal tertentu dapat diperoleh dengan mengamati hukum-hukum dari berbagai bangsa dengan cara memperbandingkan satu dengan lainnya.

Perbandingan hukum bukanlah suatu subjek persoalan, melainkan suatu metode studi. Hal tersebut merupakan proses mempelajari hukum-hukum di luar negeri dengan membandingkannya dengan hukum-hukum local. Tugas utamanya adalah untuk mengetahui dengan pasti perbedaan dan persamaan di dalam peraturan hukum, prinsip-prinsip dan lembaga-lembaga terkait pada dua negara atau lebih dengan cara pandang untuk menyediakan solusi bagi permasalahan setempat. Hal ini juga merupakan disiplin untuk memelihara “social order” berdasarkan pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang hidup di negara-negara lain.

C. Pengertian

Sejumlah penulis telah berusaha untuk mendefinisikan istilah perbandingan hukum, tetapi kebanyakan dari mereka hanya menggarisbawahi tujuan dan fungsi dari perbandingan hukum tersebut. Dalam kenyataannya, perbandingan hukum merupakan subjek dari asal mula dan pertumbuhan yang baru saja terjadi di mana masih banyak kontroversi terkait dengan sifatnya. Gutteridge telah berpendapat secara tepat yang pada intinya bahwa:
“Definisi hukum telah dikenal dengan hal-hal yang kurang memuaskan, oleh karenanya adalah tepat jika hal ini menjadi suatu kontroversi yang tidak kunjung menghasilkan hasil apapun. Hal ini, khususnya, merupakan situasi di mana setiap usaha yang dilakukan untuk mendefinisikan tentang istilah perbandingan hukum namun sejak persoalan pokok tidak terlihat nyata maka hal tersebut menjadi salah satu kendalanya.”[2]

Meskipun terdapat segala kesulitan untuk mendefinisikan istilah tersebut, para penulis dan ahli hukum telah memberikan definisi mereka dengan caranya masing-masing. Kebanyakan dari definisi tersebut menyatakan bahwa mereka hanya memasukan fungsi-fungsi dan tujuan dari perbandingan hukum dibandingkan bentuk dan sifat dasarnya. Sejak perbandingan hukum terlihat sebagai pengertian yang samar-samar dengan lingkup yang tidak dapat ditentukan, para penulis dalam definisinya masing-masing hanya menyatakan hasil yang dicapai dalam berbagai bidang sosial dan hubungan internasional.

Beberapa pengertian yang cukup penting dijelaskan sebagai berikut:

Menurut Levy Ullman:
“Perbandingan hukum telah didefinisikan sebagai cabang dari ilmu hukum di mana tujuannya yaitu untuk membentuk hubungan erat yang terusun secara sistematis antara lembaga-lembaga hukum dari berbagai negara.”[3]

Holland mendefinisikan istilah tersebut sebagai:
“Metode perbandingan dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan, menganalisa, menguraikan gagasan-gagasan, doktrin, peraturan dan pelembagaan yang ditemukan di setiap sistem hukum yang berkembang, atau setidaknya pada hampir keseluruhan sistem, dengan memberikan perhatian mengenai persamaan atau perbedaan dan mencari cara untuk membangun suatu sistem secara alamiah, sebab hal tersebut mencakup apa yang masyarakat tidak inginkan namun telah disetujui dalam konteks hal-hal yang dianggap perlu dan filosofis sebab hal ini membawa di bawah kata-kata dan nama-nama dan mendapatkan identitas dari subtansi di bawah perbedaan deskripsi dan bermanfaat, karena perbedaan tersebut menunjukan secara khusus pengertian akhir bahwa seluruh atau sebagian besar sistem mengejar untuk menerapkan sistem terbaik yang pernah dicapai.”[4]

Seorang Penulis Jerman, Bernhoft, mengemukakan:
“Perbandingan hukum menunjukkan bagaimana masyarakat dari keadaan awal dan umum telah mengembangkan secara bebas konsepsi mengenai hukum tradisional; bagaimana seseorang memodifikasi lembaga yang diwariskan secara turun-temurun berdasarkan sudut pandangnya masing-masing; hingga bagaimana, tanpa adanya hubungan material, sistem hukum dari bangsa yang berbeda-beda berkembang berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip umum evolusioner. Secara singkat, perbandingan hukum berusaha untuk menemukan ide hukum dalam bermacam sistem hukum yang ada.”[5]

Jolious Stone berpendapat bahwa:
“Perbandingan hukum mencoba untuk melukiskan apa yang sama dan apa yang berbeda dalam sistem hukum atau untuk mencari inti kesamaan dari seluruh sistem hukum.”

Rheinstein menyatakan bahwa:
“Istilah perbandingan hukum sebaiknya merujuk pada pemaparan berbagai hal mengenai cara memperlakukakan hukum secara ilmiah dengan cara pengklasifikasian secara khusus atau deskripsi analitik dari tekni penggunaan satu atau kebih sistem hukum positif.”[6]

Bartholomew menegaskan bahwa:
“Secara ringkas, metode perbandingan dapat digambarkan, sejauh mengenai ilmu hukum, dengan menaruh perhatian pada metode studi, dengan jalan mana dua atau lebih sistem hukum, konsep, lembaga atau prinsip diteliti dengan pengamatan guna mengetahui secara pasti mengenai perbedaan-perbedaan dan persamaan diantaranya.”[7]

Beberapa penulis ternama telah memperkenalkan istilah “perbandingan hukum” sama halnya dengan “perbandingan jurisprudensi” (comparative jurisprudence). Mereka berusaha untuk menjelaskan istilah “perbandingan hukum” ke dalam pengertian perbandingan jurisprudensi. Oleh sebab itu, definisi berikut dapat juga menjadi bahan pertimbangan, yaitu:

Sir Henry Maine mengatakan:
“Fungsi utama dari perbandingan jurisprudensi yaitu untuk memfasilitasi pembuatan perundang-undangan dan praktik perbaikan hukum.”[8]

Salmond mengemukakan bahwa:
“Apa yang dikenal sebagai perbandingan jurisprudensi yaitu studi mengenai persamaan dan perbedaan antara sistem hukum yang berbeda. Hal ini bukanlah cabang yang terpisah dari jurisprudensi yang mempunyai hubungan dengan analisa, sejarah dan kelayakan, namun ini hanyalah metode khusus dari ilmu pada semua cabang-cabangnya. Kita membandingkan hukum Inggris dengan hukum Romawi untuk tujuan analisa jurisprudensi dalam rangka memahami lebih baik konspesi dan prinsip-prinsip dari setiap sistem tersebut; atau untuk tujuan sejarah jurisprudensi dengan maksud bahwa kita dapat mengerti lebih baik perjalanan dan perkembangan dari setiap sistem atau untuk tujuan kelayakan jurisprudensi dengan harapan kia dapat lebih baik memutuskan manfaat dan keburukan praktis dari setiap sistem tersebut. Terpisah dari tujuan-tujuan tersebut, maka perbandingan hukum akan menjadi sia-sia.”[9]

Pollack berpendapat bahwa:
“Tidak ada perbedaan apakah kita berbicara mengenai perbandingan jurisprudensi atau sebagaimana warga Jerman cenderung untuk menyebutkannya sebagai sejarah hukum secara umum.”[10]

Prof. G.W. Keeton mengatakan bahwa:
“Perbandingan jurisprudensi mepertimbangkan perkembangan dari dua atau lebih sistem hukum. Istilah ini mempunyai lebih dari satu pengertian. Ilmu pengetahuan dapat melihat dari tujuannya sebagai penemuan dari perangkat peraturan hukum di mana biasa untuk dipelajari terhadap sistem hukum; atau perbandingan ini mencoba membicarakan mengenai hubungan dari perseorangan yang mempunyai konsekuensi hukum bersama dengan sebuah pertanyaan mengenai bagaimana hubungan-hubungan tersebut menemukan pernyataan dalam sistem hukum yang dipertimbangkan. Sering kali perbandingan jurisprudensi ini memilih berbagai topic hukum dan menjelaskan secara lengkap metode mereka dalam hal perlakuan dua atau lebih sistem hukum.”[11]

Menggunakan istilah “perbandingan legislasi” (comparative legislation) sebagai pengganti dari “perbandingan jurisprudensi”, Randal menyatakan:
“Perbandingan legislasi pada sisi keaslian dalih, nampaknya dirancang dalam rangka untuk menekankan praktik sebagai perbedaan penting pada aspek akademis dari perbandingan penelitian hukum, dan menitikberatkan melampaui dua keistimewaan hasil yang dapat diperoleh dengan menggunakan metode perbandingan. Hasil pertama dalam hal ini yaitu koleksi dan distribusi informasi sebagai hukum luar negeri. Hasil kedua yaitu pemnfaatan dari pengalaman yang diperoleh dalam sisten hukum lainnya untuk tujuan penyusunan hukum.” [12]

—- Berlanjut (2) —-

End Notes:

[1] G.W. Paton, A Text-Book on Jurisprudence, 2nd Ed., p.2.
[2] Gutteridge, Comparative Law, 2nd Edition, p. 2.
[3] “Branche seciale de la science juridque” as quoted by Gutteridge in Comparative Law.
[4] Studies in History and Jurisprudence.
[5] Uber Zwech Und Mittal der verlerchenden Rochtswissence chaft.
[6] Comparative Law: Its Function, Methods & Usages, 22 Ark, L.R.
[7] Comparative Law, 5 Indian Law Reviwe, p. 86.
[8] Village Communities, 3rd Edition, p. 3.
[9] A Text Book of Jurisprudence, 12th Edition, p. 7.
[10] The History of Comparative Jurisprudence, Jr. of C.L. (N.S) Vol. V. (1993), p. 74.
[11] The Elementary Principles of Jurisprudence, 2nd Edition, p. 16.
[12] Sir Macdonnell and the Study of Comparative Law, J. Comp. Legal Vol. XII, 2nd Edition, p. 189.

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